Examinations a Fair Gauge?

Examinations are a fair gauge of a student’s ability. Discuss. Scholastic tests are unjust barometers for students’ aptitudes as they are one-off gauges of understanding of the subjects, which may be unfair as psychological factors could come into play. Moreover, students with a clearer perception of the standard methods and types of questions will excel better than others, meaning that scoring well for an examination will not just be based on ability of application for a subject but rather on knowledge of examination skills.Also, the varying views of different markers on a qualitative script may incur a range of possible grades, questioning the validity of the supposedly uniform marking scheme. As such, ability takes a backseat to conditioning. However, a formal stable system is still required for sectoring the society into their different intellectual strata. Every student sits for the same paper with similar schedules, thus the test is still considered impartial on a constricted level. Examinations are not fair as they are one-off opportunities for students to prove themselves.Students prone to panic will be put at a great disadvantage, as these psychological factors will cause these students to be nervous and blank out during the examination, sabotaging their performance and causing them to score badly despite their sufficient preparation and adequate knowledge. The test will thus be reflecting a distorted gauge of ability. Also, others not so well prepared might even score better as a consequence, reflecting the unfairness of this system of education and of using one-off examinations as barometers to test the students’ understanding.It would thus be much fairer should examinations be carried out in an extended period of time separated into various components, where the students’ potentials, aptitudes and attitudes can be more accurately judged and rewarded. This system of education encourages practicing past year papers aimed to master these examinations, and not so the subject. Students are asked to familiarize themselves with the standard methods of answering repeated types of questions originally set with the intention of testing a student’s response to an unexpected problem. This irony of predicting and practicing uestions, which are not supposed to be expected in the first place, sheds light on how tests are used to assess the handling of test skills rather than the plain understanding of subjects, which is twisted in the ideology of education. Other students not having acquired these examination skills despite possessing the depth of the subject will still fare worse than those who lack in understanding but master the examination skills and apply the content in a fixed and conditioned manner. Examinations are thus unfair, as the marking scheme does not only include ability as the criteria for good grades.This system also does not fully encourage critical analysis and application, which are muc h needed qualities for the working world. Examinations on qualitative papers such as literature or art are also not easy to measure in terms of marks unlike quantitative papers such as mathematics. Qualitative papers are subjective, as personal opinions are required and everyone is bound to have different outlooks. These differing viewpoints of markers would cause a great range of possible marks for the very same script, blurring the lines between right and wrong.Perceptions would thus cause the marking scheme to be rather unstable, and not only aptitude would be factoring the resulting grade achieved. Luck would be part of the picture, showing us how examinations would then be a fallacy to the promise of equality. The differing styles schools adopt to teach the students also play a part in how they perform at the end of their learning journey in the major international examinations. Different tips and tricks teachers impart to students will have a great impact on the grades at the end. Thus, teachers are a factor in how well the students do in the examinations.The teacher is responsible for bringing out the qualities required and building upon the skills, creating a holistic, balanced education for the child. Everyone has the ability to score well in the examination. It is just a matter of whether it is brought out or not. This thus creates the leverage some students hold above the rest, which raises irony in the idea of equality in examinations. If the preparation is not fair in itself, obviously, the result will thus definitely differ accordingly. It is then not a matter of ability and potential anymore, but rather the effect brought out by teachers.Examination is thus unfair as a gauge of ability. However, a formal system of separating students into their different stages of potential and understanding is still required in the society to ensure that careers in the future will be properly executed to grant the best economical outcome with full utilization o f human resources. This system is fair, as everyone sits for the same paper with the same schedule so not one person gets extra time to study for the examinations, or get to breathe better air or see better greenery to achieve higher grades.The constant physical factors involved in a sitting thus ensure equality reigns in the examination hall. Also, cheating is heavily penalized in this competitive learning arena, so everyone sits for the examination with the facts and figures all in their heads and the application skills all picked up within them already, thus their source of inspiration for the subjective papers and the pool of knowledge they get their examples and content from all resonates from within, which presents to us equality as no one gets extra help in completing the questions.Although examinations are made as fair as possible, the extent of it is very restricted, as ability is something unique and individual with no two persons the same, thus causing inequality in the r esults of the examinations.

Arms Trade

â€Å"I have seen how easy it is for nuclear contamination to occur, and how hard it is to clean it up†¦. Do nations possess nuclear, chemical and biological weapons because of fear of attack from some other nation, or is it because without them the strong cannot exploit the weak? † Andreas T. The arms trade is a major cause of human rights abuses. Some governments spend more on military expenses than on social development, communications infrastructure and health combined. While every nation has the right and the need to ensure its security, in these changing times, arms requirements and procurements may need to change too. Each year, around $45-60 billion worth of arms sales are agreed. Some two-thirds of sales are made to developing countries. The 5 permanent members of the UN Security Council (US, Russia, France, United Kingdom and China), together with Germany and Italy account for over 80% of the arms sold between 2001 and 2008. Some of the arms sold go to regimes where human rights violations will occur. Corruption often accompanies arms sales due to the large sums of money involved. World military spending had reduced since the Cold War ended, but a few nations such as the US retain high level spending. In recent years, global military expenditure has increased again and is now comparable to Cold War levels again. Recent data shows global spending at over $1. 4 trillion, annually (or $1. 2 trillion at constant 2005 prices). The highest military spender is the US accounting for just under half of the world’s spending, more than the rest of the G7 (most economically advanced countries) combined, and more than all its potential enemies, combined.

Goldman, Sachs & Co. Nikkei Put Warrants †1989

Course: OFD Instructor: B. Hariprasad Assignment #1: Goldman, Sachs & Co. Nikkei Put Warrants – 1989 Section A Ankit Pandey Himanshu Agarwal Suchit Singh Problem Statement What should be the right pricing strategy for Nikkei Put Warrants (NPWs)? Structure of Nikkei-Linked Euro-Yen Transactions 1. The European bank sold a bond that promised to make annual interest payments in yen at a fixed interest rate. However, through a set of swaps, the issuer transformed its annual fixed-rate yen payments into dollar-denominated LIBOR-bases payments.This is represented by the left side transaction of the above figure. 2. At maturity, the issuer would redeem the bonds from the investor at a price tied to the Nikkei. If the Nikkei fell since the bonds were issued, the issuer would pay less than par to redeem the bonds. Thus, it would be as if the issuer sold bonds with the final principal payments at par but also bought a put option on the Nikkei maturing in the same year as the bond. If th e Nikkei fell, the put would rise in value benefiting the issuer.This reflects the embedded nature of the put option. 3. The issuer had no interest in holding this put. It often resold the embedded put options to financial intermediaries like Goldman Sachs by promising to deliver, at maturity, the difference between the bond’s par value and its Nikkei-linked redemption price. In exchange for promising to make this payment, which equaled the intrinsic value of the embedded put, the bond issuer would be paid an up-front put premium. This is represented by the right side transaction in the above figure. 4.Goldman Sachs then could sell these puts to institutional customers. Not all of these puts were sold to institutional customers. As of December 1989, Goldman Sachs had a significant inventory of European-style puts on Nikkei and it was offsetting the risk on these puts through the futures offered by Singapore, Tokyo and Osaka stock exchanges. 5. The sales force of Goldman Sachs gave an extremely positive feedback on the embedded put options and it was decided that exchange traded put warrants would be a good product offering from company’s point of view.Role of Kingdom of Denmark 1. Goldman Sachs was a private partnership and non-SEC registrant and hence could not issue the warrants publicly without making material public disclosures. Therefore it was necessary for it to work with an issuer registered with the SEC. The issuer would sell the warrants to the public but simultaneously enter into private contract with Goldman Sachs that exactly offset the obligation under the warrant contract. In return, it would receive a fee from Goldman Sachs without effectively having any exposure on Nikkei. . In addition to above argument, the issuer should be highly credit worthy and non US sovereign entity due to adverse reporting implications for a US corporate issuer. 3. Based on the above criteria, Goldman Sachs entered into an agreement with Kingdom of Denma rk, which would get a fee of $1. 3 million from these transactions. Risks exposure for Goldman Sachs 1. Risk of bearing the unsold inventory of NPWs If the investors find prices too high then much of the inventory would remain unsold and GS will have to bear the costs of unsold warrants.Risk Mitigation GS would offset its risk through futures position in the Nikkei offered by the Singapore, Osaka & Tokyo stock exchanges 2. Exchange Rate Risks Considering preference of U. S investors, GS would bear the exchange rate risks for its investors. This implies that GS has to sell NPWs in terms of dollars whereas the same has been purchased by it in terms of yen. Also, in the 1980s, the Nikkei and the yen/dollar exchange rate were moving in opposite direction which further increased its exposure to exchange rate risk. Risk MitigationThis can be mitigated through Quantos, a product offered by its currency and commodity division. A complete hedge would cost GS about $1 per warrant whereas hedg ing 80% of its risk would cost it $0. 50 per warrant only 3. Repute at risk GS would not like to keep the prices very low. At the same time it cannot price them very high as there is a risk that competitors might copy the product and start selling it at lower prices. Also, if NPWs started trading at lower prices in the secondary market this would bring disrepute for the organization and its partners involved.Price Calculation Assumptions †¢ Constant Volatility †¢ Securities are traded continuously †¢ Zero transactions costs †¢   The risk free rate is constant and it is possible to borrow and lend infinitely at this rate Variables for put intrinsic value calculation †¢ S0= Nikkei index = 38586. 16 †¢ Exchange rate ? /$ = 144. 28 †¢ Exercise price = 38587. 68 †¢ Implied Volatility = ? = 13. 6% †¢ q = dividend yield = 0. 49% †¢ Risk-free rate = 5. 85% †¢ T = time to maturity = 3 years Based on the above inputs, the price of Ameri can option is 1852. 9 yens which is $2. 57. When cost of hedging is added, this becomes $3. 57. Fixed Costs Fee for Kingdom of Denmark: $ 1300000 Legal and listing fee: $ 350000 Commissions: $ 3000000 Costs of R&D: $ 1250000 Total: $5900000 Cost per NPW: $0. 621 Total fixed plus variable: $4. 191 Hence, this is the minimum price Goldman Sachs can charge for NPWs. ———————– Swap Counterparty European Bank (Issuer) Put Warrant Purchaser gr? Y  Ã‚ ± y. /0123

Case study development and presentation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words - 2

Development and presentation - Case Study Example kjet printers of Hewlett Packard are renowned for their vibrant and rich printouts which makes Hewlett Packard a leader in the market of different models of printers. The new inkjet printers of the company provide for durable printing in the offices and can enhance the speed and quality of paper and print work in an office environment. The new Office Jet Pro X range of printers launched by Hewlett & Packard are expected to bring about transformations in the way paper and print works are carried out in the modern offices. The â€Å"Ink it out† tag is give as a form of expression for emphasizing on the importance of a printer in the corporate offices. The main features of the new office Jet Pro X Range of inkjet printers presented by Hewlett Packard are cost effective, fast and efficient for usage. The use of these printers can drive up the efficiency of an organization by supporting the office works in terms of speeding up, quality enhancement and low cost generation for printing works. The inkjet printers are often less preferred by the corporates due to the huge expenses associated with the use of the high quality printers. However, the new series of inkjet printers launched by HP is likely to change the views of the users of printers because, this series of Inkjet printer comes with astounding and impressive features like highly innovative design, less space consuming, and quality driven design and functionalities.. The factor of long wait time in printing is one of the biggest hurdles in inkjet printers. But the new series of inkjet printers launched by HP will change all expectations related to lagging efficiency and time consumption of the inkjet printers because the new HP Office Jet Pro X range of inkjet printers launched by HP can print 55 pages per minute. Reliability and higher price consumable image associated with the inkjet printers have acted as major restraints in the popularity and mass scale use of inkjet printers. However, brands like Hewlett

Parenting Styles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Parenting Styles - Essay Example Authoritarian parenting style is fraught with strict disciplinary principles and temperament problems. Such parents do not present explanations to their children rather they expect them to follow their orders silently, due to which such children develop low self-esteems. Authoritative parenting, on the other hand, is different from the authoritarian style in the sense that such parents are responsive to their children’s demands and when children fall short of expectations, then their parents are quite forgiving and understanding towards them. Children brought up under this parenting style are found to be more supportive, understanding, and responsible in their adult lives than those persons who have had harsh parental experiences in their childhoods. Parents practicing permissive parenting style expect very little from their children, rather they are particularly fond of indulging their children with many luxuries. Such children are found to behave improperly in the schools an d cannot understand the importance of authority in their practical lives. Uninvolved parenting is such a style in which parents communicate little with their children due to which they feel detached from their parents and a huge generation gap is developed. (Cherry).

Statistics on Aging Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Statistics on Aging - Essay Example The other statistics indicate that the population of the older generation continues and will continue to increase for both male and female even though the females are at a higher percentage than the males (Administration on Aging, 1900-2050). The increase in the number of older generation in the years to come mean that there should also be an increase in the number of nurses involved in population-based nursing. This is important because the old people will need attention and the work will be more hence requiring more nursing assistance. More nurses need to be recruited in this program before it is too late. The other health statistic implies that the population-based nursing is already yielding fruits on the older generation aged over 60 years as they are paying more attention to their health and they care about primary rather than tertiary prevention and treatment. Whatever advice the population-based nurses are giving this older generation should continue because it is working (Curley and Vitale,

First world war Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

First world war - Essay Example Germany tried to free Morocco so that the coalition between Britain and France could be broken. In June, 1914, a Bosnian worker killed Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand along with his spouse. The worker was employed by a Serbian terrorist organization. Austria-Hungary saw it as a reason enough to attack Serbia. Austria-Hungary seeked help from Germany because they needed protection against Russia. On 28 June, the war was declared. Russia jumped in to assist Serbia. Russian government fully mobilized the troops for war on July 29. In turn, Germany resolved to fight Russia and France on 1 August and 3 August respectively. Germany was declared war upon by Britain on 4 August. By 4 August, 1914, a vast majority of the powers in Europe had plunged into the battlefield. The war ended with great changes in the world map. German Empire was transformed into a republic country. Britain took away German colonies. Liberal democracies were knocked off by dictatorship regime in Germany. Many new countries surfaced in Middle East as well as in

Transfusion reaction in a case with the rare Bombay blood group Study

Transfusion reaction in a with the rare Bombay blood group - Case Study Example An occurrence of antigen H, synthesized by H gene, determines the expression of the A and B antigens. The antigen is a substrate for enzymes A and B transferases encoded by ABO blood group genes present on chromosome 19 of the human genome. Due to the absence of transferases in O group, H substance persists on the RBCs leading to the inability of Bombay phenotype patients to synthesize the two antigens. In addition, ABH antigens do not exist in their red blood cells. When transfuse with incompatible blood groups, a hemolytic reaction occurs in Bombay phenotypic recipients. Misdiagnosis in through blood group determination is prevalent in patients with the Bombay phenotype. Bombay phenotype individuals exhibit a high presence of anti-H in their plasma (Shahshahani et al., 2013). The strong presence of antigen H explains the occurrence of hemolytic reaction when transfused with any other blood type apart from Bombay phenotype blood group. Hemolysis is a prerequisite for disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) responsible for the symptoms witnessed in the patient. Decreasing cases of misdiagnosis in blood group determination entails incorporating reverse blood grouping together with O control cells to enhance identification of Bombay phenotype donors. Shahshahani, H. J., Vahidfar, M. R., & Khodaie, S. A. (2013). Transfusion reaction in a case with the rare Bombay blood group.  Asian Journal of Transfusion Science, 7(1),

The Core Competence of the Corporation Assignment - 1

The Core Competence of the Corporation - Assignment Example Effectively, the authors stress on the collective learning of the organization, juxtaposed with technical competencies and production technologies as drivers of core competence. They suggest simple tests that can help assess the construct: i) does the competence help the firm in addressing diverse markets, ii) is it easily imitable? and iii) does the customer perceive a benefit from the end product? In the second part of the report, we apply the learnings to a civil engineering situation where there are two organizational actors: BBCL and El Dorado. We find that the potential Joint Venture could lead to development of core competencies. In the current scheme of things, both companies do not have any clear core competencies. We also analyze the firms in terms of the capabilities that they have developed over the years. The Core Competence of the Corporation 1. ... firms that have helped them differentiate their firm’s advantages from others; additionally, these key strengths, which Prahalad & Hamel (1993) term as core competencies have enabled the companies to make their mark in several products. These strengths have led the firms to sustained and profitable growth. 2. Key definitions The authors begin with an introduction to two different companies operating in the telecommunications space: GTE and NEC. The time frame studied is 1980 to 1988. While NEC started small, it ended up bigger in revenues and market share during the end of the period. This provided an impetus for the authors to try and identify what lay behind the scenes at these two telecommunication giants. One of the definitions put forth by the authors is the term ‘core competence’ itself. A core competence could be something similar to a capability developed by a company that could help establish a sustainable, defensible and profitable market position. In a competitive environment, a core competence could be a strategic asset. The next question this leads us to is this: if a capability needs to be defined as a core competence, then what criteria can be used to test it? The authors recommend three tests: 1) Does the capability help the firm compete in several product markets? 2) Can the competence or capability be easily imitated by rivals and 3) Is the customer capable of perceiving a difference because of the company’s competence in a particular domain? If the answers to all three questions are in the affirmative, then the particular competence could be termed a core competence. 3. Key Insights & Takeaways To explain with the help of an analogy, the authors use a tree with its roots, branches and fruits. The roots are akin to the core competence. They

Deontological ethics Essay Example for Free

Deontological ethics Essay Utilitarianism ethics accentuates that the activity that should be ethically beneficial to the group. In further terms, the outcome of any moral activity ought to be valuable for all by mass offer. This is a universal fundamental theme for ethics in industrialist economies and business as well as in all governments. Virtue Theory is also known as virtue ethics focal point on the person’s character as opposed to the standards and outcomes of the particular acts. This fundamentally means that the prime focus is endured or not to the person who acting ethically is a person who upholds the high virtues and morals, in expressing the good character in people. , plan, results and conclusion are not so much immaterial; nonetheless, the significance of virtue theory is first and foremost. Dissimilar to virtue theory, deontology has a substantial accentuation on obligation in activity, in adherence to runs the show. The right activity is essential here, whereupon fruition, ought to achieve the best useful for all included. This is to some degree like utilitarianism, which does concentrate on the result of the best great. Be that as it may, deontology does not incline toward the result itself, yet all the more so the guideline behind submitting the right activity. The moral behind deontology is about rule and after tenets. Every one of the three of these ethical practices has substantial likenesses. The essential comparability is outcome of activity. Despite the fact that result is not generally the essential center of the activity, it is normal in every one of the three theories that the outcome ought to have a gainful come about as a conclusion of the activity. Whether the activity is focused around rule, qualities or ethics, the end sought to legitimize the methods. The most ideal approach to express the contrasts between virtue theory, utilitarianism and deontological ethics is to take a typical situation and examine from these three alternate points of ETHICS ESSAY 3 view. A person who polishes good virtual ethics would call attention to that by helping the individual, doing so would be a magnanimous demonstration and would express great character of the individual supporting the one in need. One who practices utilitarianism would say that by helping the individual, doing so would be useful for both the individual in need and the individual making a difference. A deontologist would say that by helping, it would be so in agreement to an ethical tenet, for example, karma, or what you do to others will return to you. As the illustration shows, virtue theory concentrates on an individuals ethical morals, and not on any particular conclusion or guideline. Utilitarianism has a stress on more prominent elses benefit, concentrating on an advantageous conclusion for all persons included, where the results of acting are useful to a group. At long last, deontology stresses obligation as the particular activity being carried out in fulfillment of emulating a particular good code, governor charge. In past role as a sales/inventory associate for Centennial wireless. A problem with ethical decisions came up on a daily basis on the job. On a daily basis, I had to do the daily deposits and check each associate cash drawer that always had 100. 00 dollars in them at all times. Multiple times a sales rep had over their cash drawer or short. If they were short, they had to place the cash that was short to equal 100. 00 dollars or if they were over they had to deposit the average. When I check their bags, I gave them a warning they had till business hours to replace that money or just to deposit it. I keep the record for my records, and if it happens regular basis, I get the manager involve. The reason I keep the information to myself is because a sale person can give too much change to a customer and does know till I or they count their cash drawers at the end of their shift. So I understand mistakes can happen. My decision on this issue is based on the utilitarianism theory that looks for the best outcome for everyone within a particular situation. ETHICS ESSAY 4 In conclusion, one can addition further understanding into ethical and social obligation by analyzing the similitude and contrasts between utilitarianism, virtue theory and deontological ethics. Through further understanding of these similitude and contrasts one can start to understand the criticalness social and ethics obligation plays in particular and business achievement. The previous examination portrays the contrasts in how every theory addresses morality and ethics. The dissection likewise incorporates a particular experience clarifying the relationship between temperance, qualities, and good ideas as they identify with one of the three speculations. Besides, the examination clarifies how the data on social and ethics obligation achievement or disappointment, contingent upon the execution of the learning one addition from the information and the choices one makes. References: MANIAS, N. (2013) ETHICS APPLIED 7TH EDITION. PEARSON EDUCATION INC. (2013).

The Unexamined Life Is Not Worth Living Socrates Philosophy Essay

The Unexamined Life Is Not Worth Living Socrates Philosophy Essay The unexamined life is not worth living. With these words, Socrates stated the creed of reflective men and women and set the task for ethics: to seek, with the help of reason, a consistent and defensible approach to life and its moral dilemmas (Walters 22). Ethical inquiry is important to us when we are unsure of the direction in which we are heading. New philosophy calls all in doubt, wrote John Donne in the wake of the Copernican Revolution and of Charles Is violent death, suggesting that new thoughts had challenged old practices (Donne). Today, new practices in the biomedical sciences are challenging old thoughts: New medicine calls all in doubt (Walters 22). Few moral convictions are more deeply ingrained than that of the sanctity of life. If plausible once, however, the view that life is a sacred process (initiated, sustained, and finally halted by God) is now more difficult to maintain (Baier 1-4). Recent advances in the biomedical sciences allow us to intervene in, and sometimes take control of, the processes of life and death. Not only can death, quite often, be kept waiting by the bed or machine, doctors and scientists can now also intervene in, indeed, initiate the process of life: cloning and recombination of DNA are two examples; in vitro fertilization (IVF) is another (Walters 23). It is not surprising, then, that in the wake of these revolutionary developments, bioethics is flourishing. Despite the obvious enthusiasm of philosophers to take a stand on many complex moral issues in the biomedical sciences, however, a curious skepticism pervades the enterprise (Walters 23). Take the comments by a dean of an Australian Medical School on the teaching of medical ethics: Like any other lifelong clinical teacher I have firm views about such topics as euthanasia, continuing severe pain, acceptable and unacceptable risks of various treatments, the appropriate use of life support systems and numerous other matters of this sort which I discuss with my colleagues, assistants, and students but would not wish to teach dogmatically since much depends on the religious and ethical views which they may have and which also must command my respect (Medical Ethics). The paragraph suggests that although ethics is not a matter of dogmatism, it is a matter of personal preference or choice, something one cannot-or should not-argue about. Then there is another attitude, implied in a newspaper article by B.A. Santamaria, that ethical inquiry is useless unless those investigating bioethical issues have been à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦endowed with authority by Almighty God [or] the Prime Ministerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Santamaria). Since the study of ethics is all about what is right and what is wrong, it is not possible to come to a correct conclusion unless one is directly appointed by God to make this conclusion. God is the only One who can correctly decree what is ethical and unethical; we as imperfect humans should not even attempt to do this job. IVF raises many of these difficult moral issues. If the above conceptions about the nature of ethics were correct, however, discussion of these issues would either be futile (because morality is a matter of personal choice or opinion) or superfluous (because morality is what a divine or secular authority says it is) (Walters 23). In this paper, I want to suggest that it is not only possible, but also necessary to inquire into the ethics of such practices as IVF because the fact that we can do something does not mean that we ought to do it. To begin with, I will provide the basic medical facts involving IVF to give a solid understanding of what goes into the whole process and what facts involving this process cause the questioning of the ethical and moral issues. Infertility affects about 4.9 million couples in the United States, or one in every twelve. Approximately one-third of infertility cases can be traced to causes in the female (Encarta). However, a small proportion of infertile women can produce healthy eggs but, although they have a normal uterus, they have damaged or diseased fallopian tubes which prevent the egg from passing from the ovary to the uterus (Warnock 29). Aside from conventional methods of fertility treatment, there are also several newer techniques, collectively known as assisted reproductive technology (ART). The best known of these is in vitro fertilization (IVF) (Encarta). The concept of IVF is simple. A ripe human egg is extracted from the ovary, shortly before it would have been released naturally. The egg is then mixed with the semen of the husband or partner so that fertilization can occur. The fertilized egg, once it has started to divide, is then transferred back to the mothers uterus. It is common practice to transfer more than one embryo to a potential mother whenever possible because of the normal hazards that come along with pregnancy, such as the egg not attaching to the wall of the uterus (Warnock 29-30). As many ripe eggs as are accessible are harvested. Each egg is then mixed with semen to achieve fertilization. Assuming there is no abnormality in the semen, the success rate of fertilization is usually at least 75%. When the time comes to transfer the embryos to the woman, it may be that only one embryo is suitable for transfer, or there may be several. The reason for transferring more then one embryo is that this should give the woman a better chance of achieving a pregnancy (Warnock 30). Nearly 0.2% of American and 1% of British babies are being born after IVF. There are now more than 300,000 IVF babies worldwide. Patients stand in line for treatment, regardless of the stress, discomfort, and risks, and despite the fact that the success rate for the treatment is seldom better than 1 in 5 or 20% (Gosden 26-27). This surprisingly high number of IVF babies, and the many more IVF attempts that do not produce babies, which are currently being produced around the world present a need for the discussion of the ethical, or unethical-ness of in vitro fertilization. To call an infant born as the result of IVF a created individual is to imply that there is some difference between a child conceived and brought to term in this way and one conceived in the womb and carried through completely to term by the mother. To many religious people, the work of creation belongs, in the first place, to God, as it is outlined in the creation stories of the book of Genesis. God is the one who creates life and order out of chaos. Mankind is the highest product of creation, made from materials, which are part of creation. To man, who is made in the image of God, there is given dominion over the created world and the authority to exercise a stewardship which involves caring for what has been created. This has been developed within the Christian tradition so that man may be considered a partner with God in the continuing work of creation (Walters 88). In examining the question of IVF we are not looking at a question of creation out of nothing, but rather what may be seen, from the religious viewpoint, as an aspect of the trust given to mankind to care for creation. It may then be more appropriate to think of the facilitated rather then the created individual when we consider human intervention in the process of human fertilization (Walters 88). In considering this question and its ramification we will look at the viewpoints of some writers, both within and outside the Judeo-Christian ethical tradition, and try to determine whether or not basic notions of humanity are threatened by the artificiality which some have claimed is involved in the process. One argument against IVF is presented by the Roman Catholic Church using natural law as the basis for their argument. The theory of natural law is widely taken to mean that God has visibly set forth Gods laws in nature and humans should obey them (Dyson 52). The primary feature of IVF that comes under scrutiny from natural law is undoubtedly concerned with IVF as external fertilization. This is to say, the primary accusation coming from natural law focuses on the fact that in IVF, fertilization occurs in vitro in a glass dish, rather than in vivo, namely in the womans body. A second feature of IVF that is challenged by natural law is the use of masturbation by the husband or donor to provide the sperm without which the external fertilization cannot go ahead (Dyson 53). A rebuttal against this is presented by Fletcher, in which he has proposed a personal instead of a biological interpretation [of the natural law theory], so that the nature to be respected becomes not the reproductive process but what is worthy of a human being-freedom, planning, control of physical nature to serve human nature! à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Mans vocation is actually to frustrate nature as do medicine and technology, if rational needs and purposes require it (Fletcher 323). Another argument that many use to defend IVF, and also abortion, is that the embryo is not actually a human being but instead just a mass of cells with the potential to become a child, therefore not worthy of respect or careful treatment as that which would be awarded to a baby. Walters, however, argues that the embryo is actually living: it metabolizes, respires, responds to changes in the environment, grows, and divides (Kass 32-60). It is actually human; it pertains to the species homo sapiens. It is inappropriate, therefore, to refer to it as potential human life. We could, however, say it is potentially a mature human being (Walters 51). Walters continues this argument using the reasoning of Paul Ramsey. The human individual comes into existence first as a minute informational speckà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (with the single exception of identical [multiple births]) no one else in the entire history of the human race has ever had or will ever have exactly the same genotype. Thus, it can be said that the individual is whoever he is going to become from the moment of impregnation. Thereafter, his subsequent development may be ascribed as a process of becoming the one he already is. However, some would counter-argue that, since twinning and recombination are possible in the early days after fertilization, irreversible individuality had not been achieved at this stage. These possibilities show the uncertainty of human individuation at conception. If the uncertainty remains as long as twinning is possible, it would seem that individuality could be certainly established only at blastocyst (an embryo four to six days after fertilization). Before this period, the embryo may be considered as only potentially a human being. This would imply that it is worthy of respect but not the same degree of respect as accorded to a mature human being (Walters 53). There are many more arguments concerning the ethicalness of in vitro fertilization, but the discussions stated above are the main points stated by the opposing sides. I do not believe one single conclusion can ever be drawn from these arguments. One can form him or her own personal opinion, but there will never be a single right or wrong answer. Based on the arguments I have read and learned about while writing this paper, I have drawn my own conclusions regarding the ethicalness of in vitro fertilization. I believe an embryo is a human being from the moment of conception and therefore its life should be treated with as much respect as a born baby should. I believe this life is precious and a creation of God. A baby is also, or should be, the representation of two people coming together in love to create a life. It should not be done outside of the body. An argument presented in Walters book that defends this position states: Those who reject human interference at the beginning of life would most certainly do so on the basis that what nature has decreed cannot take place ought not to take place. For an infertile couple, this implies that they must remain infertile: if they cannot produce a child by the normal means of conception then they must remain childlessà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦(89) This is not necessarily the case and is a very narrow-minded conclusion to draw, as I will explain in the next paragraph. I sympathize with the couples who wish to have a child that shares their genetics, but I believe God made the couple infertile for a specific reason. He made them infertile so they could have the opportunity to give an orphaned or abandoned child a home. There are thousands, maybe even millions, of children without families all over the world. These children deserve love and a home just as much as the couple deserves to have a child. As William Walters put it so clearly, instead of insisting on the right of a couple to have a child, as some have done, let us be mindful rather of the right of a child to have parents (Walters 78). Just because a couple cannot produce their own genetic child does not mean that they must remain childless. While many people may not agree with other conclusions I have drawn regarding the personhood of the embryo or the immorality of a couple having a child outside of intimacy, there is no disputing the fact that infertile couples have an alternative to having a child created through science. They could make something good out of a seemingly bad thing by giving a child without a family a home, love, and a life. There is an alternative to infertility without relying on scientists, test tubes, and small chances. They can create their own miracle by giving life to an already-born deserving child. Baier, K. The Sanctity of Life, Journal of Social Philosophy. Vol. 5. April 1974: 1-4. Donne, John. The First Anniversary. Dyson, Anthony O. The Ethics of IVF. Mowbrey: 1995. Fletcher, J. Anglican Theology and the Ethics of Natural Law, Christian Social Ethics in a Changing World: An Ecumenical Theological Inquiry. Association Press: New York, 1966. Flynn, Eileen P. Human Fertilization In Vitro: A Catholic Moral Perspective. University Press of America: 1984. Gosden, Roger. Designing Babies. W.H. Freeman and Co.: New York, 1999. Kass, L.R. Making Babies Revisited, The Public Interest. Vol. 54. 1979: 32-60. Infertility. Encarta 1998. CD-ROM. Microsoft Corporation, 1993-1997. Medical Ethics. Editorial. The Medical Journal of Australia 11 June 1977: p. 871. ODonovon, Oliver. Begotten or Made? Clarendon Press: 1984. Ramsey, Paul in Rachels, J. ed. Moral Problems. Harper Row: New York, 1975. Santamaria, B.A. Medics Play God With Babes on Ice. Perth Independent 26 May 1981. Walters, William and Peter Singer ed. Test-Tube Babies. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982. Warnock, Mary. A Question of Life. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984.